Use of sources
Good research is built on pre-existing knowledge; this is what we call use of sources (kildebruk). Here you will learn about how to choose relevant sources, and how to use them in your academic work.
In this video, Ole Bjørn Rekdal, professor at HVL, tells us about what characterizes proper use of sources in academic writing.
A source can be defined as as the “origin” of knowledge or information. A source in this context, is the origin of knowledge. A source contains one form of information or another and can come in a variety of mediums. It could be a reference book like an encyclopedia, a textbook, a newspaper article, a webpage, a picture, a video, etc. A defining characteristic of this type of source is that we know where they come from. Here we will focus mostly on what is called theoretical sources, such as academic research publications and textbooks. These are the building blocks in academic work. Therefore, it is expected of you as a student that you familiarize yourself with the proper use of sources.
To write in academia is to participate in a conversation where sources refer to other sources. Which sources that are most suitable, will vary according to subject and assignment. Use your research question to orient yourself and speak with your advisor, peers and other people in your field to better understand what sources are relevant in your field of study.
Why refer to the work of others?
Proper use of sources shows clearly what you are building your work on and separates this from your own contributions. When you reference correctly in the course of your writing, you are emphasizing just this. References also point the reader to the literature list, where one can find complete information regarding the author, year of publication and publisher. This makes it possible for the reader to find their way back to the source. Precise documentation of sources enables the reader to:
Find the sources themselves
Control and verify information
Further familiarizing themselves with the subject in question
When you reference and use sources in your writing, you are using the work of others. It is important to learn how to use these correctly, without it conflicting with the current law on copyright.
Correct use of references is also decisive with regards to avoiding plagiarism.
How do you refer sources?
This is how you refer to your sources:
- Provide a reference to the source in your text using a citation.
- Give the complete information about the source in a literature list in the end of the text.
The look of your references and reference list will depend on citation style. Find out which citation style is used in your field. When you have chosen a citation style, it is important that you use it consistently.
There are a number of academic citation styles, e.g. APA, Chicago Notes-Bibliography, Chicago Author-Date, Harvard, MLA, and Vancouver. The APA style, 7th edition, is the most common citation style and therefore most of the examples at Søk & Skriv is taken from this style.
What ought to be cited?
When you use something from a source, you should always refer to the source both in your text and in your literature list. This applies to everything, from numerical data and models, results and conclusions, to others’ arguments or analysis. Typical sources for academic purposes are often books or research articles. Remember that all use of figures, tables, sound and images are subject to intellectual property laws and regulations.
Common knowledge Common knowledge does not need a citation, as for example:
“Denmark is part of Europe”, “There are four seasons" or that March 8th is the international Women’s Day.
If you are writing about something that is not commonly known, however, you must show where you are getting your information from. It can be difficult to assess how broadly the requirement of documentation applies, and what counts as common knowledge varies from field to field. If in doubt, ask your advisor. Then you will avoid being suspected of plagiarism.
Avoiding plagiarism / copyright infringement
How to avoid plagiarism?
The most important thing is to never copy and paste without stating your sources.
Write quotes verbatim with quotation marks, or paraphrase (summarize using your own words).
When paraphrasing, you can put the source away while writing, so that you do not get too caught up in the author’s writing style. Afterwards, you can check if the content corresponds to that of your source and include the appropriate citation.
… And that’s how you avoid plagiarism!
Extensive and/or deliberate infringements of copyright can be considered attempts to cheat and can have serious consequences for you as a student. In cases of attempts to cheat, the consequences may be invalidation of exams, expulsion from your institution, and forfeiture of the right to take exams at other institutions in Norway for up to 2 years.
Always show where you have gotten your information or your formulations from – then you will be safe. This also goes for your own work: extensive reuse of your own work can also count as attempts to cheat.
Self-citation or self-plagiarism?
Reusing one’s own work can be appropriate, but few assignments are improved by referring to things you have done before. If you cannot avoid it, follow this advice:
Published assignments are cited as you would refer to any other text, with author, date, title and publisher.
Unpublished student work can be referred to as “Own work (Date). Title of work [Unpublished assignment (or other appropriate description)]. Name of educational institution.
These examples follow the APA style.
Many places of study have clear guidelines for reuse of one’s own work/self-citation. Always consult your advisor or your instructor if you want to use things you have previously written.
Copyright
Copyright is the right that the creator of intellectual property has to their work. Intellectual property can be a literary, scientific, or artistic work. In Norway, the Copyright law is regulated in Lov om opphavsrett til åndsverk (åndsverklova). The main rule in the copyright law is that the creator has the sole right to produce copies of the work and to make it accessible to others. This economic rights protection lasts for 70 years after the creator has passed away. Then the work becomes part of the public domain.
In addition to the economic rights protection the creator has, there is also an ideal right – that is, the right to be credited and protected from the intellectual property being used in an offensive way. This ideal right never expires. Breaches of these rights may have significant consequences. Plagiarism means presenting others’ results, thoughts, ideas or formulations as if they were one’s own. Plagiarism counts as intellectual theft, according to Lov om opphavsrett til åndsverk (åndsverklova).
Citations
Sometimes it can be relevant to use information or text from others in your own text. This must be done in accordance with god discretion, by citing and correctly referring to the sources. Never give the impression that something is yours when it is not.
Direct Quotation
Direct quotation is word for word use of text. Examples of this can be definitions, especially good formulations, or statements to be discussed in what follows. Quotations consisting of fewer than 40 words (or three lines) should be written directly into the text and be indicated with quotation marks.
Example
«When you are writing a thesis, connecting your topic to an academic discourse is essential» (Nygaard, 2017, p. 111).
Source: Nygaard, L.P. (2017). Writing your master´s thesis. From A to Zen. Sage.
Note that if the original text contains italics, you must also use italics when you make use of the text as a direct quotation.
Quotations containing more than 40 words should (in APA) be written as a separate, indented paragraph. When writing quotes in this way, you should not use quotation marks, and the period should precede the parenthesis. It is common to introduce the quote.
In cases of altered quotations
It can sometimes be relevant to alter a quotation. For example, it might be fitting to add words to make the reader understand the context. If you have a longer quote containing some irrelevant sections, it might be appropriate to exclude parts of the quote. The latter must be signaled by three bracketed periods.
Example
The original quotation:
«If your topic has been discussed in the media, among policy makers or in practice, a recap of this non-academic discussion can be included in the background» (Nygaard, 2017, p. 111).
The quotation with excluded text:
«If your topic has been discussed in the media […] a recap of this non-academic discussion can be included in the background» (Nygaard, 2017, p. 111).
When you add something to a quote, you place it in brackets.
Example
The original quotation:
«But what will make your work academic, is the extent to which you are also able to link your discussion to an academic discourse» (Nygaard, 2017, p. 111).
The quotation with added text:
«But what will make your [student] work academic, is the extent to which you are also able to link your discussion to an academic discourse» (Nygaard, 2017, p. 111).
Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing, also known as indirect quotation, refers to the cases where you reformulate the content in your own words. Paraphrasing can contribute to creating flow and demonstrate that you have a good understanding of the source. Make sure that the content is reformulated correctly and that the meaning remains the same.
Example
The original text:
The literature review identifies for the reader exactly which academic conversation you want to be a part of. The difference between background and the literature review is comparable to the difference between reporting the scores of a football game and providing expert commentary. (Nygaard, 2017, p. 111)
Paraphrase:
An important point of writing a literature review as part of your master’s thesis, is to clarify to the reader which academic conversation your thesis will contribute to. To illustrate the difference between background and a literature review, Nygaard uses an example from football: The background is like reporting the number of goals in a football match, while a literature review is the expert commentator’s analysis (2017, p. 111).
Secondary sources
The main rule is that you only cite works you have read. If the primary source is unavailable, or in a language you do not understand, you can refer to other authors’ commentary on that source:
Example
In the text:
An example of this is Malinowski, who questioned the Oedipus complex ind Freud´s theory (cited in Rogoff, 2003, p.7)
In the reference list: Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human developemnt. Oxford University Press.
If you know the year in which the primary source was published, this should also be included in the text. You can learn mora about secondary sources on the APA Style Webpage.
Use of illustrations and statistics
You are allowed to use photographs you have taken yourself. Remember that, in most cases, the people portrayed must consent.
The main rule is that you must have consent from the creator in order to use other people’s photographs and artworks. But if you use an artwork or a picture in a scientific, non-commercial context – such as a student assignment – you are allowed to use them in your assignment. Note that these works and pictures cannot be simply used as illustrations, but must be part of the assignment’s argumentation.
Use of pictures and other illustrations is regulated by the copyright law (åndsverkslova). If unsure, you can find more detailed information in the APA manual.
Many universities and university colleges offer databases of pictures licensed for unconditional use. Consult your institution. You can also find pictures for unconditional use through Creative Commons Search, or search Google and define license under the tools tab.
Tip
BONO is a copyright organization for the visual arts. See if your institution has an agreement with BONO or see if you can apply for single-use license.
Tables and graphs
If you want to use a table or graph from a published work, you are not allowed to reproduce it in your own work without consent from the creator. Rather, you should write in your own words what the table or graph says and refer to it, or make your own. It might be easiest to ask the creator themselves.
Notes and appendices
In addition to quotes and reference lists, an assignment can contain notes and appendixes.
- Limit the use of notes.
- Notes are to be used for additional information that is not a natural part of the text.
- You can choose whether to include footnotes at the bottom of the page or endnotes at the back of the chapter/assignment.
- If you choose to use footnotes, it is common to use a smaller font size in order to distinguish them from the main text.
- Exactly how the notes are to be formatted depends on what citation style you are using. For example, numbered notes are not necessary if you use a numbered citation style such as Vancouver.
- Appendices are lists of tables and figures that are part of the assignments, questionnaires, observation forms, interview guides, etc. Appendices should be numbered and placed after the reference list.
Helpful tools
When working on bigger assignments, you can simplify your work by using citation tools such as Zotero, EndNote, ReferenceManager, or Mendeley. Consult your institution to find out what citation tools are available for you. Zotero is available for free for everyone, while Mendeley and EndNote are only available for free in limited versions.
Remember to always double-check your citations!
Here you can get a quick introduction on how to use Zotero:
Tips:
If you are not using a citation tool, you can easily copy your references from Oria, Google Scholar or the journal homepage instead. Always double check that they are complete, and italicized where applicable. Look for citation symbol:
